SQL Server Schema Management

Use this skill for creating and modifying database schemas, writing migration scripts, and applying DDL best practices.

CREATE TABLE — Data Type Guide

CREATE TABLE dbo.Customers (
    -- Integer IDs
    CustomerID      INT             NOT NULL IDENTITY(1,1),  -- INT (up to ~2.1B rows); use BIGINT for very large tables
    ExternalRef     BIGINT          NULL,                     -- BIGINT when interfacing with external systems

    -- Strings
    CompanyName     NVARCHAR(200)   NOT NULL,                 -- NVARCHAR for Unicode (internationalization)
    CountryCode     CHAR(2)         NOT NULL,                 -- CHAR for fixed-length strings (ISO codes, etc.)
    Notes           NVARCHAR(MAX)   NULL,                     -- MAX only when truly variable length > 4000 chars

    -- Dates and Times
    CreatedAt       DATETIME2(7)    NOT NULL DEFAULT GETUTCDATE(),  -- DATETIME2 preferred (microsecond precision, wider range)
    UpdatedAt       DATETIME2(7)    NULL,
    BirthDate       DATE            NULL,                     -- DATE when time component is irrelevant
    AppointmentTime TIME(0)         NULL,                     -- TIME when date is irrelevant

    -- Money
    AccountBalance  DECIMAL(18,4)   NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,       -- DECIMAL/NUMERIC for money — never FLOAT (precision loss)

    -- Boolean
    IsActive        BIT             NOT NULL DEFAULT 1,       -- BIT for boolean

    -- Unique identifiers (use sparingly — causes fragmentation as CK)
    PublicToken     UNIQUEIDENTIFIER NOT NULL DEFAULT NEWSEQUENTIALID(),  -- NEWSEQUENTIALID() is sequential (less fragmentation)

    -- Constraints
    CONSTRAINT PK_Customers PRIMARY KEY CLUSTERED (CustomerID),
    CONSTRAINT UQ_Customers_CompanyName UNIQUE (CompanyName),
    CONSTRAINT CK_Customers_CountryCode CHECK (LEN(CountryCode) = 2)
);

Data Type Quick Reference

DATETIME vs DATETIME2:

• DATETIME — legacy, 3.33ms precision, range 1753–9999
• DATETIME2 — preferred, 100ns precision, range 0001–9999, ANSI SQL compliant

ALTER TABLE

-- Add a column (always add as NULL or with a default — can't add NOT NULL with no default to existing table)
ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers ADD PhoneNumber NVARCHAR(50) NULL;
ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers ADD IsVerified BIT NOT NULL DEFAULT 0;  -- Default makes this OK

-- Add a NOT NULL column (two-step: add nullable, populate, then add constraint)
ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers ADD Region NVARCHAR(50) NULL;
UPDATE dbo.Customers SET Region = 'Unknown' WHERE Region IS NULL;
ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers ALTER COLUMN Region NVARCHAR(50) NOT NULL;

-- Add a constraint
ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers ADD CONSTRAINT CK_Customers_Balance CHECK (AccountBalance >= 0);

-- Add a foreign key
ALTER TABLE dbo.Orders ADD CONSTRAINT FK_Orders_Customers
    FOREIGN KEY (CustomerID) REFERENCES dbo.Customers (CustomerID);

-- Add a non-clustered index
CREATE INDEX IX_Customers_Region ON dbo.Customers (Region) INCLUDE (CompanyName, IsActive);

-- Drop a column (check for foreign keys, indexes, computed columns first)
ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers DROP COLUMN PhoneNumber;

-- Drop a constraint
ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers DROP CONSTRAINT CK_Customers_Balance;

-- Rename a column (use sp_rename)
EXEC sp_rename 'dbo.Customers.CompanyName', 'BusinessName', 'COLUMN';

Migration Scripts — Idempotent Patterns

Write migrations so they can be re-run safely. This is critical for deployments.

-- ✅ Idempotent: Add column only if it doesn't exist
IF NOT EXISTS (
    SELECT 1 FROM sys.columns 
    WHERE object_id = OBJECT_ID('dbo.Customers') AND name = 'Region'
)
BEGIN
    ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers ADD Region NVARCHAR(50) NULL;
END
GO

-- ✅ Idempotent: Create index only if it doesn't exist
IF NOT EXISTS (
    SELECT 1 FROM sys.indexes 
    WHERE object_id = OBJECT_ID('dbo.Customers') AND name = 'IX_Customers_Region'
)
BEGIN
    CREATE INDEX IX_Customers_Region ON dbo.Customers (Region);
END
GO

-- ✅ Idempotent: Add constraint only if it doesn't exist
IF NOT EXISTS (
    SELECT 1 FROM sys.check_constraints 
    WHERE name = 'CK_Customers_Balance' AND parent_object_id = OBJECT_ID('dbo.Customers')
)
BEGIN
    ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers ADD CONSTRAINT CK_Customers_Balance CHECK (AccountBalance >= 0);
END
GO

-- ✅ Idempotent: Create table only if it doesn't exist
IF NOT EXISTS (SELECT 1 FROM sys.tables WHERE name = 'AuditLog' AND schema_id = SCHEMA_ID('dbo'))
BEGIN
    CREATE TABLE dbo.AuditLog (
        AuditID     BIGINT          NOT NULL IDENTITY(1,1),
        TableName   NVARCHAR(128)   NOT NULL,
        Operation   CHAR(6)         NOT NULL,
        ChangedAt   DATETIME2(7)    NOT NULL DEFAULT GETUTCDATE(),
        ChangedBy   NVARCHAR(128)   NOT NULL DEFAULT SYSTEM_USER,
        CONSTRAINT PK_AuditLog PRIMARY KEY CLUSTERED (AuditID)
    );
END
GO

-- ✅ Idempotent: Drop object only if it exists
IF OBJECT_ID('dbo.usp_OldProcedure', 'P') IS NOT NULL
    DROP PROCEDURE dbo.usp_OldProcedure;
GO

Migration Numbering Pattern

migrations/
├── V001__create_customers_table.sql
├── V002__add_region_column.sql
├── V003__create_orders_table.sql
├── V004__add_orders_fk_customers.sql

Each file:

• Prefixed with V + zero-padded number + __ + description
• Idempotent (safe to re-run)
• Contains only forward changes (no rollback in same file)
• Tested on a staging database before production

Foreign Key Patterns

-- Standard FK with cascade delete
ALTER TABLE dbo.OrderItems ADD CONSTRAINT FK_OrderItems_Orders
    FOREIGN KEY (OrderID) REFERENCES dbo.Orders (OrderID)
    ON DELETE CASCADE
    ON UPDATE NO ACTION;

-- FK with SET NULL on delete (orphan-safe)
ALTER TABLE dbo.Orders ADD CONSTRAINT FK_Orders_Customers
    FOREIGN KEY (CustomerID) REFERENCES dbo.Customers (CustomerID)
    ON DELETE SET NULL;

-- FK without cascade (safest — explicit deletes required)
ALTER TABLE dbo.Orders ADD CONSTRAINT FK_Orders_Customers
    FOREIGN KEY (CustomerID) REFERENCES dbo.Customers (CustomerID);

-- Disable FK for bulk load, re-enable after
ALTER TABLE dbo.OrderItems NOCHECK CONSTRAINT FK_OrderItems_Orders;
-- ... bulk insert ...
ALTER TABLE dbo.OrderItems WITH CHECK CHECK CONSTRAINT FK_OrderItems_Orders;

Computed Columns

-- Persisted computed column (stored on disk, can be indexed)
ALTER TABLE dbo.Orders ADD
    TaxAmount AS (TotalAmount * 0.08) PERSISTED,
    FullAmount AS (TotalAmount + TotalAmount * 0.08) PERSISTED;

-- Computed column for search normalization
ALTER TABLE dbo.Products ADD
    SearchName AS LOWER(TRIM(ProductName)) PERSISTED;

CREATE INDEX IX_Products_SearchName ON dbo.Products (SearchName);

Check Constraints

-- Value range
ALTER TABLE dbo.Products ADD CONSTRAINT CK_Products_Price
    CHECK (Price >= 0);

-- Enumerated values
ALTER TABLE dbo.Orders ADD CONSTRAINT CK_Orders_Status
    CHECK (Status IN ('Pending', 'Processing', 'Shipped', 'Delivered', 'Cancelled'));

-- Cross-column constraint
ALTER TABLE dbo.Events ADD CONSTRAINT CK_Events_Dates
    CHECK (EndDate >= StartDate);

-- String format (basic)
ALTER TABLE dbo.Customers ADD CONSTRAINT CK_Customers_Email
    CHECK (Email LIKE '%@%.%');