MoonBit Project Layouts

MoonBit use the .mbt extension and interface files .mbti. At the top-level of a MoonBit project there is a moon.mod.json file specifying the metadata of the project. The project may contain multiple packages, each with its own moon.pkg.json file.

Example layout

my_module
├── moon.mod.json             # Module metadata, source field(optional) specifies the source directory of the module
├── moon.pkg.json             # Package metadata (each directory is a package like Golang)
├── README.mbt.md             # Markdown with tested code blocks (`test "..." { ... }`)
├── README.md -> README.mbt.md
├── cmd                       # Command line directory
│   └── main
│       ├── main.mbt
│       └── moon.pkg.json     # executable package with {"is_main": true}
├── liba/                     # Library packages
│   └── moon.pkg.json         # Referenced by other packages as `@username/my_module/liba`
│   └── libb/                 # Library packages
│       └── moon.pkg.json     # Referenced by other packages as `@username/my_module/liba/libb`
├── user_pkg.mbt              # Root packages, referenced by other packages as `@username/my_module`
├── user_pkg_wbtest.mbt       # White-box tests (only needed for testing internal private members, similar to Golang's package mypackage)
└── user_pkg_test.mbt         # Black-box tests
└── ...                       # More package files, symbols visible to current package (like Golang)

• Module: moon.mod.json file in the project directory.

A MoonBit module is like a Go module,it is a collection of packages in subdirectories, usually corresponding to a repository or project. Module boundaries matter for dependency management and import paths.

• Package: a moon.pkg.json file per directory.

All subcommands of moon will still be executed in the directory of the module (where moon.mod.json is located), not the current package. A MoonBit package is the actual compilation unit (like a Go package). All source files in the same package are concatenated into one unit. The package name in the source defines the package, not the file name. Imports refer to module + package paths, NEVER to file names.

• Files:

A .mbt file is just a chunk of source inside a package. File names do NOT create modules or namespaces. You may freely split/merge/move declarations between files in the same package. Any declaration in a package can reference any other declaration in that package, regardless of file.

Coding/layout rules you MUST follow:

1. Prefer many small, cohesive files over one large file.

- Group related types and functions into focused files (e.g. http_client.mbt, router.mbt). - If a file is getting large or unfocused, create a new file and move related declarations into it.

1. You MAY freely move declarations between files inside the same package.

- Each block is separated by ///|, moving a function/struct/trait between files does not change semantics, as long as its name and pub-ness stay the same, the order of each block is irrelevant too. - It is safe to refactor by splitting or merging files inside a package.

1. File names are purely organizational.

- Do NOT assume file names define modules, and do NOT use file names in type paths. - Choose file names to describe a feature or responsibility, not to mirror type names rigidly.

1. When adding new code:

- Prefer adding it to an existing file that matches the feature. - If no good file exists, create a new file under the same package with a descriptive name. - Avoid creating giant “misc” or “util” files.

1. Tests:

- Place tests in dedicated test files (e.g. test.mbt) within the appropriate package. For a package, besides test.mbtfiles,*.mbt.mdare also blackbox test files, the code block mbt check are treated as test cases, they serve both purposes: documentation and tests. You may have README.mbt.md files with mbt check code examples, you can also symlink README.mbt.md to README.md to make it integrate better with GitHub. - It is fine—and encouraged—to have multiple small test files.

1. Interface files(pkg.generated.mbti)

pkg.generated.mbti is compiler-generated summaries of each package's public API surface. They provide a formal, concise overview of all exported types, functions, and traits without implementation details. They are generated using moon info, useful for code review, when you have a commit that does not change public APIs, pkg.generated.mbti files will remain unchanged, so it is recommended to put pkg.generated.mbti in version control when you are done.

You can also use moon doc @moonbitlang/core/strconv to explore the public API of a package interactively and moon ide peek-def 'Array::join' to read the definition.

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

• Don't use uppercase for variables/functions - compilation error
• Don't forget mut for mutable record fields - immutable by default
• Don't ignore error handling - errors must be explicitly handled
• Don't use return unnecessarily - last expression is the return value
• Don't create methods without Type:: prefix - methods need explicit type prefix
• Don't forget to handle array bounds - use get() for safe access
• Don't forget @package prefix when calling functions from other packages
• Don't use ++ or -- (not supported) - use i = i + 1 or i += 1
• Don't add explicit try for error-raising functions - errors propagate automatically (unlike Swift)
• Legacy syntax: Older code may use functionname!(...) or functionname(...)? - these are deprecated; use normal calls and try? for Result conversion

moon Essentials

Essential Commands

• moon new my_project - Create new project
• moon run cmd/main - Run main package
• moon build - Build project
• moon check - Type check without building, use it REGULARLY, it is fast
• moon info - Type check and generate mbti files

run it to see if any public interfaces changed.

• moon check --target all - Type check for all backends
• moon add package - Add dependency
• moon remove package - Remove dependency
• moon fmt - Format code

Test Commands

• moon test - Run all tests
• moon test --update - Update snapshots
• moon test -v - Verbose output with test names
• moon test [dirname|filename] - Test specific directory or file
• moon coverage analyze - Analyze coverage
• moon test --filter 'globl' - Run tests matching filter

`` moon test float/float_test.mbt --filter "Float::*" ``

README.mbt.md Generation Guide

• Output README.mbt.md in the package directory.

*.mbt.md file and docstring contents treats mbt check specially. mbt check block will be included directly as code and also run by moon check and moon test. If you don't want the code snippets to be checked, explicit mbt nocheck is preferred. If you are only referencing types from the package, you should use mbt nocheck which will only be syntax highlighted. Symlink README.mbt.md to README.md to adapt to systems that expect README.md.

Testing Guide

Use snapshot tests as it is easy to update when behavior changes.

• Snapshot Tests: inspect(value, content="..."). If unknown, write inspect(value) and run moon test --update (or moon test -u).

- Use regular inspect() for simple values (uses Show trait) - Use @json.inspect() for complex nested structures (uses ToJson trait, produces more readable output) - It is encouraged to inspect or @json.inspect the whole return value of a function if the whole return value is not huge, this makes test simple. You need impl (Show|ToJson) for YourType or derive (Show, ToJson).

• Update workflow: After changing code that affects output, run moon test --update to regenerate snapshots, then review the diffs in your test files (the content= parameter will be updated automatically).

• Black-box by default: Call only public APIs via @package.fn. Use white-box tests only when private members matter.
• Grouping: Combine related checks in one test "..." { ... } block for speed and clarity.
• Panics: Name test with prefix test "panic ..." {...}; if the call returns a value, wrap it with ignore(...) to silence warnings.
• Errors: Use try? f() to get Result[...] and inspect it when a function may raise.
• Verify: Run moon test (or -u to update snapshots) and moon fmt afterwards.

Docstring tests

Public APIs are encouraged to have docstring tests. ```mbt check ///| /// Get the largest element of a non-empty Array. /// /// # Example /// `mbt check /// test { /// inspect(sumarray([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]), content="21") /// } /// ` /// /// # Panics /// Panics if the xs is empty. pub fn sumarray(xs : Array[Int]) -> Int { xs.fold(init=0, (a, b) => a + b) } ```

The MoonBit code in docstring will be type checked and tested automatically. (using moon test --update). In docstrings, mbt check should only contain test or async test.

Spec-driven Development

• The spec can be written in a readonly spec.mbt file (name is conventional, not mandatory) with stub code marked as declarations:

```mbt check ///| #declaration_only pub type Yaml

///| #declarationonly pub fn Yaml::tostring(y : Yaml) -> String raise { ... }

///| #declarationonly pub fn parseyaml(s : String) -> Yaml raise { ... }

- Add `spec_easy_test.mbt`, `spec_difficult_test.mbt` etc to test the spec functions; everything will be type-checked(`moon check`).
- The AI or students can implement the `declaration_only` functions in different files thanks to our package organization.
- Run `moon test` to check everything is correct.

- `#declaration_only` is supported for functions, methods, and types.
- The `pub type Yaml` line is an intentionally opaque placeholder; the implementer chooses its representation.
- Note the spec file can also contain normal code, not just declarations.

## `moon doc` for API Discovery

**CRITICAL**: `moon doc '<query>'` is your PRIMARY tool for discovering available APIs, functions, types, and methods in MoonBit. Always prefer `moon doc` over other approaches when exploring what APIs are available, it is **more powerful and accurate** than `grep_search` or any regex-based searching tools. 


`moon doc` uses a specialized query syntax designed for symbol lookup:
- **Empty query**: `moon doc ''`

  - In a module: shows all available packages in current module, including dependencies and moonbitlang/core
  - In a package: shows all symbols in current package
  - Outside package: shows all available packages

- **Function/value lookup**: `moon doc "[@pkg.]value_or_function_name"`
  
- **Type lookup**: `moon doc "[@pkg.]Type_name"` (builtin type does not need package prefix)

- **Method/field lookup**: `moon doc "[@pkg.]Type_name::method_or_field_name"`

- **Package exploration**: `moon doc "@pkg"`
  - Show package `pkg` and list all its exported symbols
  - Example: `moon doc "@json"` - explore entire `@json` package
  - Example: `moon doc "@encoding/utf8"` - explore nested package

- **Globbing**: Use `*` wildcard for partial matches, e.g. `moon doc "String::*rev*"` to find all String methods with "rev" in their name

### `moon doc` Examples

````bash
# search for String methods in standard library:
$ moon doc "String"

type String

  pub fn String::add(String, String) -> String
  # ... more methods omitted ...

$ moon doc "@buffer" # list all symbols in  package buffer:
moonbitlang/core/buffer

fn from_array(ArrayView[Byte]) -> Buffer
# ... omitted ...

$ moon doc "@buffer.new" # list the specific function in a package:
package "moonbitlang/core/buffer"

pub fn new(size_hint? : Int) -> Buffer
  Creates ... omitted ...


$ moon doc "String::*rev*"  # globbing
package "moonbitlang/core/string"

pub fn String::rev(String) -> String
  Returns ... omitted ...
  # ... more

pub fn String::rev_find(String, StringView) -> Int?
  Returns ... omitted ...
````
**Best practice**: When implementing a feature, start with `moon doc` queries to discover available APIs before writing code. This is faster and more accurate than searching through files.

## `moon ide [peek-def|outline|find-references]` for code navigation and refactoring

For project-local symbols and navigation, use `moon ide outline .` to scan a package, `moon ide find-references <symbol>` to locate usages, and `moon ide peek-def` for inline definition context and locate toplevel symbols. 

These tools save tokens and more precise than grepping(grep display results in both definition and call site including comments too).

### `moon ide peek-def sym [-loc filename:line:col]` example

When the user ask: Can you check if `Parser::read_u32_leb128` is implemented correctly?

In this case, You can run `moon ide peek-def Parser::read_u32_leb128` to get the definition context: (this is better than `grep` since it searches the whole project by semantics)

``` file src/parse.mbt
L45:|///|
L46:|fn Parser::read_u32_leb128(self : Parser) -> UInt raise ParseError {
L47:|  ...
...:| }

Now you want to see the definition of Parser struct, you can run:

$ moon ide peek-def Parser -loc src/parse.mbt:46:4
Definition found at file src/parse.mbt
  | ///|
2 | priv struct Parser {
  |             ^^^^^^
  |   bytes : Bytes
  |   mut pos : Int
  | }  
  | 

For the -loc argument, the line number must be precise; the column can be approximate since the positonal argument Parser helps locate the position.

If the sym is toplevel symbol, the location can be omitted: ````bash $ moon ide peek-def String::rev Found 1 symbols matching 'String::rev':

pub fn String::rev in package moonbitlang/core/builtin at /Users/usrname/.moon/lib/core/builtin/string_methods.mbt:1039-1044 1039 | ///| | /// Returns a new string with the characters in reverse order. It respects | /// Unicode characters and surrogate pairs but not grapheme clusters. | pub fn String::rev(self : String) -> String { | self[:].rev() | } ````

moon ide outline [dir|file] and moon ide find-references <sym> for Package Symbols

Use this to scan a package or file for top-level symbols and locate usages without grepping

• moon ide outline dir outlines the current package directory (per-file headers)
• moon ide outline parser.mbt outlines a single file
• Useful when you need a quick inventory of a package, or to find the right file before goto-definition
• moon ide find-references TranslationUnit finds all references to a symbol in the current module

$ moon ide outline .
spec.mbt:
 L003 | pub(all) enum CStandard {
        ...
 L013 | pub(all) struct Position {
        ...

$ moon ide find-references TranslationUnit

Package Management

Adding Dependencies

moon add moonbitlang/x        # Add latest version
moon add moonbitlang/[email protected]  # Add specific version

Updating Dependencies

moon update                   # Update package index

Typical Module configurations (moon.mod.json)

{
  "name": "username/hello", // Required format for published modules
  "version": "0.1.0",
  "source": ".", // Source directory(optional, default: ".")
  "repository": "", // Git repository URL
  "keywords": [], // Search keywords
  "description": "...", // Module description
  "deps": {
    // Dependencies from mooncakes.io, using`moon add` to add dependencies
    "moonbitlang/x": "0.4.6"
  }
}

Typical Package configuration (moon.pkg.json)

{
  "is_main": true,                 // Creates executable when true
  "import": [                      // Package dependencies
    "username/hello/liba",         // Simple import, use @liba.foo() to call functions
    {
      "path": "moonbitlang/x/encoding",
      "alias": "libb"              // Custom alias, use @libb.encode() to call functions
    }
  ],
  "test-import": [...],            // Imports for black-box tests, similar to import
  "wbtest-import": [...]           // Imports for white-box tests, similar to import (rarely used)
}

Packages per directory, packages without moon.pkg.json are not recognized.

Package Importing (used in moon.pkg.json)

• Import format: "modulename/packagepath"
• Usage: @alias.function() to call imported functions
• Default alias: Last part of path (e.g., liba for username/hello/liba)
• Package reference: Use @packagename in test files to reference the

tested package

Package Alias Rules:

• Import "username/hello/liba" → use @liba.function() (default alias is last path segment)
• Import with custom alias {"path": "moonbitlang/x/encoding", "alias": "enc"} → use @enc.function()
• In test.mbt or wbtest.mbt files, the package being tested is auto-imported

Example:

///|
/// In main.mbt after importing "username/hello/liba" in `moon.pkg.json`
fn main {
  println(@liba.hello()) // Calls hello() from liba package
}

Using Standard Library (moonbitlang/core)

MoonBit standard library (moonbitlang/core) packages are automatically imported - DO NOT add them to dependencies:

• ❌ DO NOT use moon add to add standard library packages like moonbitlang/core/strconv
• ❌ DO NOT add standard library packages to "deps" field of moon.mod.json
• ❌ DO NOT add standard library packages to "import" field of moon.pkg.json
• ✅ DO use them directly: @strconv.parse_int(), @list.List, @array.fold(), etc.

If you get an error like "cannot import moonbitlang/core/strconv", remove it from imports - it's automatically available.

Creating Packages

To add a new package fib under .:

1. Create directory: ./fib/
2. Add ./fib/moon.pkg.json: {} -- Minimal valid moon.pkg.json
3. Add .mbt files with your code
4. Import in dependent packages:

``json { "import": [ "username/hello/fib", ... ] } ` For more advanced topics like conditional compilation, link configuration, warning control, and pre-build commands, see references/advanced-moonbit-build.md`.

MoonBit Language Tour

Core facts

• Expression‑oriented: if, match, loops return values; last expression is the return.
• References by default: Arrays/Maps/structs mutate via reference; use Ref[T] for primitive mutability.
• Blocks: Separate top‑level items with ///|. Generate code block‑by‑block.
• Visibility: fn private by default; pub exposes read/construct as allowed; pub(all) allows external construction.
• Naming convention: lower_snake for values/functions; UpperCamel for types/enums; enum variants start UpperCamel.
• Packages: No import in code files; call via @alias.fn. Configure imports in moon.pkg.json.
• Placeholders: ... is a valid placeholder in MoonBit code for incomplete implementations.
• Global values: immutable by default and generally require type annotations.
• Garbage collection: MoonBit has a GC, there is no lifetime annotation, there's no ownership system.

Unlike Rust, like F#, let mut is only needed when you want to reassign a variable, not for mutating fields of a struct or elements of an array/map.

• Delimit top-level items with ///| comments so tools can split the file reliably.

MoonBit Error Handling (Checked Errors)

MoonBit uses checked error-throwing functions, not unchecked exceptions. All errors are subtype of Error, we can declare our own error types by suberror. Use raise in signatures to declare error types and let errors propagate by default. Use try? to convert to Result[...] in tests, or try { } catch { } to handle errors explicitly.

```mbt check ///| /// Declare error types with 'suberror' suberror ValueError String

///| /// Tuple struct to hold position info struct Position(Int, Int) derive(ToJson, Show, Eq)

///| /// ParseError is subtype of Error pub(all) suberror ParseError { InvalidChar(pos~:Position, Char) // pos is labeled InvalidEof(pos~:Position) InvalidNumber(pos~:Position, String) InvalidIdentEscape(pos~:Position) } derive(Eq, ToJson, Show)

///| /// Functions declare what they can throw fn parse_int(s : String, position~ : Position) -> Int raise ParseError { // 'raise' throws an error if s is "" { raise ParseError::InvalidEof(pos=position) } ... // parsing logic }

///| /// Just declare raise to not track specific error types fn div(x : Int, y : Int) -> Int raise { if y is 0 { fail("Division by zero") } x / y }

///| test "inspect raise function" { let result : Result[Int, Error] = try? div(1, 0) guard result is Err(Failure(msg)) && msg.contains("Division by zero") else { fail("Expected error") } }

// Three ways to handle errors:

///| /// Propagate automatically fn useparse(position~: Position) -> Int raise ParseError { let x = parseint("123", position=position) // Error auto-propagates by default. // Unlike Swift, you do not need to mark try for functions that can raise // errors; the compiler infers it automatically. This keeps error handling // explicit but concise. x * 2 }

///| /// Mark raise for all possible errors, do not care which error it is. /// For quick prototypes, raise is acceptable. fn useparse2(position~: Position) -> Int raise { let x = parseint("123", position=position) x * 2 }

///| /// Convert to Result with try? fn safeparse(s : String, position~: Position) -> Result[Int, ParseError] { let val1 : Result[] = try? parseint(s, position=position) // Returns Result[Int, ParseError] // try! is rarely used - it panics on error, similar to unwrap() in Rust // let val2 : Int = try! parseint(s) // Returns Int otherwise crash

// Alternative explicit handling: let val3 = try parse_int(s, position=position) catch { err => Err(err) } noraise { // noraise block is optional - handles the success case v => Ok(v) } ... }

///| /// Handle with try-catch fn handleparse(s : String, position~: Position) -> Int { try parseint(s, position=position) catch { ParseError::InvalidEof => { println("Parse failed: InvalidEof") -1 // Default value } _ => 2 } }

Important: When calling a function that can raise errors, if you only want to
propagate the error, you do not need any marker; the compiler infers it.

## Integers, Char

MoonBit supports Byte, Int16, Int, UInt16, UInt, Int64, UInt64, etc. When the type is known,
the literal can be overloaded:

```mbt check
///|
test "integer and char literal overloading disambiguation via type in the current context" {
  let a0 = 1 // a is Int by default
  let (int, uint, uint16, int64, byte) : (Int, UInt, UInt16, Int64, Byte) = (
    1, 1, 1, 1, 1,
  )
  assert_eq(int, uint16.to_int())
  let a1 : Int = 'b' // this also works, a5 will be the unicode value
  let a2 : Char = 'b'
}

Bytes (Immutable)

```mbt check ///| test "bytes literals overloading and indexing" { let b0 : Bytes = b"abcd" let b1 : Bytes = "abcd" // b" prefix is optional, when we know the type let b2 : Bytes = [0xff, 0x00, 0x01] // Array literal overloading guard b0 is [b'a', ..] && b0[1] is b'b' else { // Bytes can be pattern matched as BytesView and indexed fail("unexpected bytes content") }

}

## Array (Resizable)

```mbt check
///|
test "array literals overloading: disambiguation via type in the current context" {
  let a0 : Array[Int] = [1, 2, 3] // resizable
  let a1 : FixedArray[Int] = [1, 2, 3] // Fixed size
  let a2 : ReadOnlyArray[Int] = [1, 2, 3] 
  let a3 : ArrayView[Int] = [1, 2, 3]
}

String (Immutable UTF-16)

s[i] returns a code unit (UInt16), s.get_char(i) returns Char?. Since MoonBit supports char literal overloading, you can write code snippets like this:

```mbt check ///| test "string indexing and utf8 encode/decode" { let s = "hello world" let b0 : UInt16 = s[0] guard(b0 is ('\n' | 'h' | 'b' | 'a'..='z') && s is [.."hello", ..rest]) else { fail("unexpected string content") } guard rest is " world" // otherwise will crash (guard without else)

// In check mode (expression with explicit type), ('\n' : UInt16) is valid.

// Using getchar for Option handling let b1 : Char? = s.getchar(0) assert_true(b1 is Some('a'..='z'))

// ⚠️ Important: Variables won't work with direct indexing let eqchar : Char = '=' // s[0] == eqchar // ❌ Won't compile - eqchar is not a literal, lhs is UInt while rhs is Char // Use: s[0] == '=' or s.getchar(0) == Some(eqchar) let bytes = @encoding/utf8.encode("中文") // utf8 encode package is in stdlib asserttrue(bytes is [0xe4, 0xb8, 0xad, 0xe6, 0x96, 0x87]) let s2 : String = @encoding/utf8.decode(bytes) // decode utf8 bytes back to String asserttrue(s2 is "中文") for c in "中文" { let : Char = c // unicode safe iteration println("char: \{c}") // iterate over chars } }

### String Interpolation && StringBuilder

MoonBit uses `\{}` for string interpolation, for custom types, it needs implement trait `Show`

```mbt check
///|
test "string interpolation basics" {

  let name : String = "Moon"
  let config = { "cache": 123 }
  let version = 1.0
  println("Hello \{name} v\{version}") // "Hello Moon v1.0"
  // ❌ Wrong - quotes inside interpolation not allowed:
  // println("  - Checking if 'cache' section exists: \{config["cache"]}")

  // ✅ Correct - extract to variable first:
  let has_key = config["cache"] // `"` not allowed in interpolation
  println("  - Checking if 'cache' section exists: \{has_key}")
  
  let sb = StringBuilder::new()
  sb..write_char('[') // dotdot for imperative method chaining
    ..write_view([1,2,3].map((x) => "\{x}").join(","))
    ..write_char(']')
  inspect(sb.to_string(), content="[1,2,3]")
}

Expressions inside \{} can only be basic expressions (no quotes, newlines, or nested interpolations). String literals are not allowed as it makes lexing too difficult.

Multiple line strings

``mbt check ///| test "multi-line string literals" { let multilinestring : String = #|Hello "world" #|World #| let multilinestringwithinterp : String = $|Line 1 "" $|Line 2 \{1+2} $| // no escape in #|, // only escape '\{..} in $| asserteq(multilinestring, "Hello \"world\"\nWorld\n") asserteq(multilinestringwithinterp, "Line 1 \"\"\nLine 2 3\n") }

## Map (Mutable, Insertion-Order Preserving)

```mbt check
///|
test "map literals and common operations" {
  // Map literal syntax
  let map : Map[String, Int] = { "a": 1, "b": 2, "c": 3 }  
  let empty : Map[String, Int] = {} // Empty map, preferred
  let also_empty : Map[String, Int] = Map::new()
  // From array of pairs
  let from_pairs : Map[String, Int] = Map::from_array([("x", 1), ("y", 2)])

  // Set/update value
  map["new-key"] = 3
  map["a"] = 10 // Updates existing key

  // Get value - returns Option[T]
  guard map is { "new-key": 3, "missing"? : None, .. } else {
    fail("unexpected map contents")
  }

  // Direct access (panics if key missing)
  let value : Int = map["a"] // value = 10

  // Iteration preserves insertion order
  for k, v in map {
    println("\{k}: \{v}") // Prints: a: 10, b: 2, c: 3, new-key: 3
  }

  // Other common operations
  map.remove("b")
  guard map is { "a": 10, "c": 3, "new-key": 3, .. } && map.length() == 3 else {
    // "b" is gone, only 3 elements left  
    fail("unexpected map contents after removal")
  }
}

View Types

Key Concept: View types (StringView, BytesView, ArrayView[T]) are zero-copy, non-owning read-only slices created with the [:] syntax. They don't allocate memory and are ideal for passing sub-sequences without copying data, for function which takes String, Bytes, Array, they also take *View(implicit conversion).

• String → StringView via s[:] or s[start:end]
• Bytes → BytesView via b[:] or b[start:end]
• Array[T], FixedArray[T], ReadOnlyArray[T] → ArrayView[T] via a[:] or a[start:end]`

Important: StringView slice is slightly different due to unicode safety: s[a:b] may raise an error at surrogate boundaries (UTF-16 encoding edge case). You have two options:

• Use try! s[a:b] if you're certain the boundaries are valid (crashes on invalid boundaries)
• Let the error propagate to the caller for proper handling

When to use views:

• Pattern matching with rest patterns ([first, .. rest])
• Passing slices to functions without allocation overhead
• Avoiding unnecessary copies of large sequences

Convert back with .tostring(), .tobytes(), or .to_array() when you need ownership. (moon doc StringView)

User defined types(enum, struct)

```mbt check ///| enum Tree[T] { Leaf(T) // Unlike Rust, no comma here Node(left~ : Tree[T], T, right~ : Tree[T]) // enum can use labels } derive(Show, ToJson) // derive traits for Tree

///| pub fn Tree::sum(tree : Tree[Int]) -> Int { match tree { Leaf(x) => x // we don't need to write Tree::Leaf, when tree has a known type Node(left~, x, right~) => left.sum() + x + right.sum() // method invoked in dot notation } }

///| struct Point { x : Int y : Int } derive(Show, ToJson) // derive traits for Point

test "user defined types: enum and struct" { @json.inspect(Point::{ x: 10, y: 20 }, content=({"x":10,"y":20})) }

## Functional `for` loop


```mbt check
pub fn binary_search(
  arr : ArrayView[Int],
  value : Int,
) -> Result[Int, Int] {
  let len = arr.length()
  // functional for loop:
  // initial state ; [predicate] ; [post-update] {
  // loop body with `continue` to update state
  //} else { // exit block
  // }
  // predicate and post-update are optional
  for i = 0, j = len; i < j; {
    // post-update is omitted, we use `continue` to update state
    let h = i + (j - i) / 2
    if arr[h] < value {
      continue h + 1, j // functional update of loop state
    } else {
      continue i, h // functional update of loop state
    }
  } else { // exit of for loop
    if i < len && arr[i] == value {
      Ok(i)
    } else {
      Err(i)
    }
  } where {
    invariant : 0 <= i && i <= j && j <= len,
    invariant : i == 0 || arr[i - 1] < value,
    invariant : j == len || arr[j] >= value,
    reasoning :
      #|For a sorted array, the boundary invariants are witnesses:
      #|  - `arr[i-1] < value` implies all arr[0..i) < value (by sortedness)
      #|  - `arr[j] >= value` implies all arr[j..len) >= value (by sortedness)
      #|
      #|Preservation proof:
      #|  - When arr[h] < value: new_i = h+1, and arr[new_i - 1] = arr[h] < value ✓
      #|  - When arr[h] >= value: new_j = h, and arr[new_j] = arr[h] >= value ✓
      #|
      #|Termination: j - i decreases each iteration (h is strictly between i and j)
      #|
      #|Correctness at exit (i == j):
      #|  - By invariants: arr[0..i) < value and arr[i..len) >= value
      #|  - So if value exists, it can only be at index i
      #|  - If arr[i] != value, then value is absent and i is the insertion point
      #|
  }
}

///|
test "functional for loop control flow" {
  let arr : Array[Int] = [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
  inspect(binary_search(arr,5), content="Ok(2)") // Array to ArrayView implicit conversion when passing as arguments
  inspect(binary_search(arr,6), content="Err(3)")
  // for iteration is supported too
  for i, v in arr {
    println("\{i}: \{v}") // `i` is index, `v` is value
  }
}

You are STRONGLY ENCOURAGED to use functional for loops instead of imperative loops WHENEVER POSSIBLE, as they are easier to reason about.

Loop Invariants with where Clause

The where clause attaches machine-checkable invariants and human-readable reasoning to functional for loops. This enables formal verification thinking while keeping the code executable. Note for trivial loops, you are encouraged to convert it into for .. in so no reasoning is needed.

Syntax: ```mbt nocheck for ... { ... } where { invariant : <booleanexpr>, // checked at runtime in debug builds invariant : <booleanexpr>, // multiple invariants allowed reasoning : <string> // documentation for proof sketch }

**Writing Good Invariants:**

1. **Make them checkable**: Invariants must be valid MoonBit boolean expressions using loop variables and captured values.

2. **Use boundary witnesses**: For properties over ranges (e.g., "all elements in arr[0..i) satisfy P"), check only boundary elements. For sorted arrays, `arr[i-1] < value` implies all `arr[0..i) < value`.

3. **Handle edge cases with `||`**: Use patterns like `i == 0 || arr[i-1] < value` to handle boundary conditions where the check would be out of bounds.

4. **Cover three aspects in reasoning**:
   - **Preservation**: Why each `continue` maintains the invariants
   - **Termination**: Why the loop eventually exits (e.g., a decreasing measure)
   - **Correctness**: Why the invariants at exit imply the desired postcondition

## Label and Optional Parameters

Good example: use labeled and optional parameters

```mbt check
///|
fn g(
  positional : Int,
  required~ : Int,
  optional? : Int, // no default => Option
  optional_with_default? : Int = 42, // default => plain Int
) -> String {
  // These are the inferred types inside the function body.
  let _ : Int = positional
  let _ : Int = required
  let _ : Int? = optional
  let _ : Int = optional_with_default
  "\{positional},\{required},\{optional},\{optional_with_default}"
}

///|
test {
  inspect(g(1, required=2), content="1,2,None,42")
  inspect(g(1, required=2, optional=3), content="1,2,Some(3),42")
  inspect(g(1, required=4, optional_with_default=100), content="1,4,None,100")
}

Misuse: arg : Type? is not an optional parameter. Callers still must pass it (as None/Some(...)).

```mbt check ///| fn with_config(a : Int?, b : Int?, c : Int) -> String { "\{a},\{b},\{c}" }

///| test { inspect(withconfig(None, None, 1), content="None,None,1") inspect(withconfig(Some(5), Some(5), 1), content="Some(5),Some(5),1") }

Anti-pattern: `arg? : Type?` (no default => double Option).
If you want a defaulted optional parameter, write `b? : Int = 1`, not `b? : Int? = Some(1)`.

```mbt check
///|
fn f_misuse(a? : Int?, b? : Int = 1) -> Unit {
  let _ : Int?? = a // rarely intended
  let _ : Int = b

}
// How to fix: declare `(a? : Int, b? : Int = 1)` directly.

///|
fn f_correct(a? : Int, b? : Int = 1) -> Unit {
  let _ : Int? = a
  let _ : Int = b

}

///|
test {
  f_misuse(b=3)
  f_misuse(a=Some(5), b=2) // works but confusing
  f_correct(b=2)
  f_correct(a=5)
}

Bad example: arg : APIOptions (use labeled optional parameters instead)

```mbt check ///| /// Do not use struct to group options. struct APIOptions { width : Int? height : Int? }

///| fn not_idiomatic(opts : APIOptions, arg : Int) -> Unit {

}

///| test { // Hard to use in call site notidiomatic({ width : Some(5), height : None }, 10) notidiomatic({ width : None, height : None }, 10) }

## More details

For deeper syntax, types, and examples, read `references/moonbit-language-fundamentals.mbt.md`.