Thinking in Rust

You already know Rust syntax. Change the defaults you reach for first when modeling a domain, handling ownership, designing APIs, or crossing boundaries.

The core failure mode: writing Rust that compiles but thinks like Python, Java, TypeScript, or C. Bare String for domain types. bool for states. Trait objects for closed sets. Error(String) for everything. _ => in every match. Index loops. Sentinel values. Getters and setters on every field. clone() to quiet the compiler. unsafe to escape design pressure. These compile. They are wrong.

Most of these habits come from languages without sum types, ownership, zero-cost newtypes, or exhaustive matching. Recognizing where a pattern comes from helps you see why it is wrong in Rust.

When reviewing Rust, start with the shape of the program: what invariants are represented, who owns each value, which states are impossible, where errors cross boundaries, and whether any escape hatch is hiding a design problem.

Treat these as strong defaults, not rigid laws: when unsure, choose the approach that moves invariants into types and lets the compiler enforce them.

How Rust Thinks

Model the domain in types

1. Every string with domain meaning is a newtype. Bare String erases domain knowledge. The compiler cannot distinguish an email from a username from a URL. Wrap it, validate at construction, keep the field private. See [references/newtypes-and-domain-types.md](references/newtypes-and-domain-types.md).
2. Every boolean parameter is a lie — use an enum. true and false carry no meaning at the call site and cannot extend to a third state. Replace flags with named variants. Applies to struct fields too: correlated booleans are a state machine in disguise. See [references/bool-to-enum.md](references/bool-to-enum.md).
3. Every "I don't know" is explicit. Option<bool> has three states but none of them are named. Empty collections can mean "checked and empty" or "not checked yet." Make each state a named variant. See [references/option-bool-to-enum.md](references/option-bool-to-enum.md).
4. Every match on your enum is exhaustive — no wildcard => arms. Wildcards silence the compiler when you add variants. List every variant of enums you control. => is for foreign #[non_exhaustive] types and primitives. See [references/exhaustive-matching.md](references/exhaustive-matching.md).
5. Every error variant is a domain fact — no Error(String). String errors throw away structure. Callers cannot match, test, retry, translate, or recover. Libraries expose typed error enums; applications add context. See [error-handling.md](error-handling.md).
6. Parse, don't validate. Validation checks data and throws away the proof. Parsing checks data and returns a type that proves the invariant. After parsing, do not re-check downstream. See [references/parse-dont-validate.md](references/parse-dont-validate.md).
7. Enums are the primary modeling tool. Rust enums are sum types. A struct with a kind field plus Option payload fields is always an enum waiting to be written. See [references/enums-as-modeling-tool.md](references/enums-as-modeling-tool.md).
8. Closed sets are enums, not trait objects. If you know all variants at compile time, use an enum: zero-cost dispatch, exhaustive matching, per-variant data. Use generics or dyn Trait only when the set is genuinely open. See [traits.md](traits.md).
9. Boundaries translate; internals model. Serde, FFI, CLI, HTTP, and database edges should convert DTOs into domain types. Do not let wire formats become your internal model. See [serde.md](serde.md) and [interop.md](interop.md).

Express ownership and API intent

1. Borrow by default — own when intentional. Accept &str, &[T], and &Path unless you need to store, mutate, transform, or transfer ownership. See [references/borrow-by-default.md](references/borrow-by-default.md).
2. Function signatures are ownership contracts. A signature should reveal who owns, who borrows, who mutates, and how long values remain valid. If the signature lies, the borrow checker will make you pay. See [references/function-signatures.md](references/function-signatures.md).
3. Clone is not a design tool. Clone for independent ownership, thread transfer, or stored copies. Do not clone because E0382 made you sad. See [ownership.md](ownership.md).
4. Restructure ownership before Rc<RefCell<T>>. RefCell trades compile-time borrow checking for runtime panics. First try split borrows, read-then-write phases, arenas/indices, or explicit ownership flow. See [references/ownership-before-refcell.md](references/ownership-before-refcell.md).
5. Async is for waiting, not for CPU work. Never block the runtime. Use async I/O, spawn_blocking for short blocking calls, and Rayon or dedicated threads for CPU-bound work. See [async.md](async.md).
6. Unsafe and atomics require written proofs. Atomics need a small ordering argument. Unsafe needs the smallest safe wrapper, # Safety docs, // SAFETY: comments, and Miri when validity or aliasing matters. See [atomics.md](atomics.md) and [unsafe.md](unsafe.md).

Express intent in APIs and control flow

1. Iterators over index loops. for i in 0..v.len() risks off-by-one errors and obscures intent. Use .iter(), .enumerate(), .windows(), .zip(), and adapters that say what you mean. See [references/iterators-over-indexing.md](references/iterators-over-indexing.md).
2. Option over sentinel values. -1, "", 0, and u32::MAX as "no value" markers are invisible to the type system. Use Option<T>. See [references/option-over-sentinels.md](references/option-over-sentinels.md).
3. One entity, one struct — not parallel collections. Multiple maps or vectors sharing keys depend on discipline, not types. Group related data into a struct and store one collection of that entity. See [references/struct-collections.md](references/struct-collections.md).
4. Transform over mutate. For configuration and construction, prefer consuming self chains over &mut self setters. Reserve &mut self for live objects being operated on. See [references/transform-over-mutate.md](references/transform-over-mutate.md).
5. Modules are namespaces, not impl blocks. A unit struct with only associated functions is a Java class in disguise. Use modules for free functions; use traits when method syntax matters. See [references/impl-namespace.md](references/impl-namespace.md).
6. Right-size pattern matching. matches!() for boolean checks. if let for one variant. let ... else for early return. match for real alternatives. Exhaustive match when adding a variant should break the build. See [references/pattern-matching-tools.md](references/pattern-matching-tools.md).
7. Public fields beat trivial getters. If any value of a field's type is valid, make it pub. Do not write getx()/setx() that only forwards. When accessors protect invariants, use Rust naming: name(), not get_name(). See [references/getter-setter.md](references/getter-setter.md).
8. Visibility is a design tool, not cleanup. pub is a semver promise. Default to private or pub(crate), group modules by domain, and curate the public facade with pub use. See [references/visibility-and-modules.md](references/visibility-and-modules.md).
9. Crate boundaries must earn their names. Stay single-crate until you can name the boundary. Cargo features are additive public capability, not an internal architecture switch. See [project-structure.md](project-structure.md).

Common Mistakes (Agent Failure Modes)

• Public newtype fields (pub struct Email(pub String)) → Make the field private; force construction through parse/new so invariants cannot be bypassed.
• Boolean flags leaking into APIs → Replace with enums, even when there are only two states today.
• Option<bool> or nested Option state → Name the states. Stop making callers decode truth tables.
• kind field plus Option payload fields → Replace with an enum carrying per-variant data; delete the impossible states.
• Wildcard matches on your own enums → List every variant; adding a variant should break the build.
• Validation that returns Result<(), E> and then forgets the proof → Parse once at the boundary into a domain type.
• Error(String) or a crate-wide error blob → Define structured errors for one unit of fallibility.
• anyhow::Error in a public library API → Use a library error type; reserve anyhow for binaries/apps.
• Bare ? in application code → Add .context() so the error says what you were doing.
• Taking ownership by default → Borrow unless you store, return, transform, or transfer ownership.
• clone() as first response to E0382 → Ask who should own the data. Clone only when you can name why.
• 'static added to silence a lifetime error → Fix the relationship between lifetimes; do not make your API less useful.
• &String, &Vec<T>, or &PathBuf in APIs → Accept &str, &[T], or &Path.
• Rc<RefCell<T>> or Arc<Mutex<T>> as first resort → Restructure ownership or use message passing.
• dyn Trait for a closed set → Use an enum. Interfaces are not free flexibility in Rust.
• Blocking or CPU work inside async fn → Use async APIs, spawn_blocking, or Rayon/thread pool.
• Holding a lock guard across .await → Narrow the lock scope or redesign shared state.
• Ordering::Relaxed because it is faster → Write the proof; otherwise use Release/Acquire or SeqCst.
• Unsafe to dodge the borrow checker → The pattern is probably wrong. Restructure first.
• serde_json::Value as the internal model → Use DTOs at the boundary and domain types inside.
• Benchmarking debug builds or optimizing cold code → Measure --release first; keep invariants until profiling proves otherwise.
• Feature flags for internal workspace architecture → Use modules/crates; features are additive public capability.

Review Checklist

1. Domain primitive? → Newtype, enum, or parser-backed type.
2. Boolean or Option<bool> state? → Named enum variants.
3. Wildcard match on owned enum? → Exhaustive match.
4. Validation repeated downstream? → Parse once at the boundary.
5. Borrow checker appeased with clone(), 'static, Rc<RefCell<_>>, or unsafe? → Rework ownership first.
6. Public signature takes owned data but only reads? → Borrow &str, &[T], or &Path.
7. Library returns stringly or anyhow errors? → Structured public error type.
8. Polymorphism unclear? → Enum, then generics, then dyn only for true erasure.
9. Async code blocks, holds locks across .await, or fans out unboundedly? → Move blocking work and bound concurrency.
10. Unsafe or atomics present? → Check the written invariant/proof and run Miri when relevant.
11. Serde/FFI/API boundary leaks into internals? → Translate DTOs into domain types.
12. Performance concern? → Measure --release before cleverness.
13. Everything is pub or feature-gated internally? → Curate the facade; keep features additive.

Quick Reference

Cross-References

• [ownership.md](ownership.md) — Borrow checker errors, lifetimes, function signatures, smart pointers, Cow, clone discipline.
• [error-handling.md](error-handling.md) — thiserror vs anyhow, structured errors, context, combinators, panic boundaries.
• [traits.md](traits.md) and [type-design.md](type-design.md) — Dispatch choices, trait design, newtypes, typestate, builders, phantom types.
• [async.md](async.md), [atomics.md](atomics.md), and [unsafe.md](unsafe.md) — Concurrency, memory ordering, soundness, Miri, Send/Sync invariants.
• [macros.md](macros.md), [testing.md](testing.md), and [performance.md](performance.md) — Generated code, validation strategy, profiling-first optimization.
• [serde.md](serde.md), [interop.md](interop.md), and [project-structure.md](project-structure.md) — Boundaries, DTOs, FFI, workspaces, features, public API surface.